Indian History

Rock Art Paintings of Bhimbetka

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Rock art paintings of Bhimbetka are much popular among the historians for articulated study of the Mesolithic culture. The Bhimbetka Cave Paintings are locted in the Raisen District of Madhya Pradesh which was recognized as the UNESCO World Heritage Site in the year 2003. These rock art paintings is not only a vibrant tourist spot but also the major source of information of the Mesolithic Period. Let's read the details of these Cave Paintings;

Evolution of Paintings -

These paintings evolved over the period of time as there is much difference in the painting style of different period at this single place only. This might be considered as the excellence of practice as in the starting phase these paintings were not so well finished and were pretty large in size but later on the size reduced gradually and the details of the objects were highlighted much more than the previous ones. The paintings in the later phase also started giving the details of the scene in a much better way as the later phase paintings also gave the information of the weapons, rituals, musical instruments, etc. which were not present in the paintings which were made in the earlier phase. Thus, this suggests that the painting skills of the Mesolithic people also started developing over the period of time with more and more practice just like of the modern day artists get better with more practice.

Palace of Settlements -

The Mesolithic settlement was just at the same featured location just like the settlements of the other ages i.e. the place with proper and regular supply of water, rich flora and fauna, and large rock shelters, etc. which were much required for the survival of the people at that time. The Mesolithic people much relied on the flora and fauna for there food and were dependent on the Rock shelters for spending there nights. This is the reason why major civilizations settled along the banks of rivers only. This pattern of living in these kind of areas was present in all the continents as Kakadu National Park in Australia, Bushmen in Kalahari Desert, Lascaux in the France, etc were all the sites of the Mesolithic era which suggests the preference of people to the easy availability of the basic resources necessary for the survival of the people. Perhaps it is the same way how people now-a-days lives in the city for good jobs and opportunities.

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Chalcolithic Age in India

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An age which revolved much around the Harappan Civilization, The Chalcolithic age was much pre-harappan and some post-harappan period when people first used metal i.e. copper that's why this age is also known as Copper-Stone age. The people led a sub-urban lifestyle when the village community were growing bigger but not as big as the first cities of the Harappan Culture. Chalcolithic age was a kind intermediate between the pre-historic and the Harappan era as it had certain features which were more developed from the Neolithic period while some of it's features were developed more duringthe Harappan Culture thus it acted as the mediate between both the cultures. There are some more points about the Chalcolithic age, so let's start reading;

Lifestyle -

People lived relatively in large groups as compared to the Neolithic age. The houses were built in the groups with much modern design but the concept of burnt bricks were not known to them. The economy was not much stable as the whole was based on the village level system. The infant mortality rate was higher and the death due to unnatural reasons was also high in number which suggests that the period lacked the basis information of medications. There exist the inequality among the people as the leader of the village lived in the large rectangular house while all the villagers lived in the small round huts which gives the idea of the dominating power of the village head. Religious activities started flourishing and the worship of mother goddess was also practiced as some small clay images of earth goddess have been discovered at certain places.

Agriculture -

Domestication of the animals were much popular and animals domesticated were sheep, goats, pigs and buffaloes and also the hunting of deer was quite popular however the horse was not known to them. People used to eat beef and pork and the animals were domesticated for slaughtering not for milk and dairy products. People used to produce rice, wheat, bajra and other cereals while practicing the slash and burn agriculture method. Many tools were used for agricultural purposes but the plough and hoe was not known to the people.

Technology -

Much technological advancement took place during the Chalcolithic age however the major advancement took place during the Neolithic period and the Harappan Culture. The red and black decorative pottery came into the existence during this period which continued even in the Harappan Civilization. The Chalcolithic people were the expert copper-smith and knew how to smelt the copper and make tools from it. Also, the manufacturing of different types of ornaments, jewelry, and beads started from the Chalcolithic age only. The people also knew how to spin and weave however the technology did not change much after the Neolithic age.

Area Influenced -

The most prominent site of the chalcolithic age was the Khetri mines present day Rajasthan as most of the copper used in thi age was mined from this mine only. Although, the towns of this age also flourished in the states like Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnatak, etc. However the most developed chalcolithic sites are Nevasa, Jorwe, Navdatoli, Malwa, etc. Some of the Chalcolithic age sites which were part of Harappan culture are Kalibangan, Banawali, and Kot Diji.

The Chalcolithic age is always considered as the secondary age as there is no particular time in which the age flourished independently as either Neolithic age or Harappan Civilization was flourishing contemporary to it at some different place which overtook it's identity and also much innovations took place during this age particularly in India.

You will also like my article on Neolithic age at neolithic-age.

These notes can be helpful for UPSC Preparation, Board Exams, and other competitive exams.

The article on the Mesolithic age is at Mesolithic Culture in India.

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Neolithic Age in India

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This age started from around 6000 BC and lasted till 1000 BC which was the last age of the Pre-historic age. This age was the most reforming in all the aspects like from human development to cultural development and thus the age is also termed as Neolithic Revolution by V. Gordon Childe. This age led to the foundations of the civilization culture later, and also all the special inventions and innovations began from this age only. People started practicing farming from this age and also started making houses and other structures. Let's start reading more about it;

Beginning of Food Production -

The production of the food started from this era only and all the agricultural reforms occur in this era only. People started cultivating land for food grains and fruits. Crops like corn and horse gram were grown popularly. The exact cropping pattern is not known to us till now but many historians assumes that the people practiced shifting cultivation but the permanent settlement of the community suggests that people didn't perform shifting cultivation. The use of various tools for agricultural purposes were popular but ploughes were not introduced as this was the first time humans were practicing agriculture. Historians think that farming technique was discovered out of accidental event as the discovery of fire. The domestication of animals was also practiced during this age however cattle like ship, goat and cow were only domesticated.

Tools and Technology -

Neolithic people were highly innovative in the designs and shape of the tools they used. They started making tools from polished, ground stones and reduced there dependency on the quartzite stone for making tools as they now were able to give the desired shape to the stones. Also the need of the hand axes increased as people were more focusing on agriculture than hunting animals. The design of these axes were different in different regions as rectangular axes with curved edge were excavated from the North-Western region while the rectangular butt axes were used in the North-Eastern regions and oval sided and pointed butt axes were used in the Southern regions.

Invention of Pottery -

The pottery was invented during the Neolithic era probably by hands and later the potters' wheel was used for making the pots. The pottery was widely popular among the Neolithic period as many of the pots and related stuff has been found during various excavation. Black burnished ware, Grey ware, and Mat-Impressed ware pottery were made during the Neolithic period. The potter was popular among the people but was not as well furnished as it was in the Harappan Civilization. The pottery was kept simple and was not much decorated.

Village Settlements -

Many Sub-urban community were developed during the Neolithic period and in the later phase people led a more settle life like living in well developed houses which were built in groups. People used to built circular and rectangular houses with the help of mud and reed. The life of the people became more social and some of the religious practices were also started by them. Neolithic people also knew to make boats as well as how to spin cotton, wool, and weave cloth. The clothes were made simple without any design.

Area Covered -

Burzahom and Gufkraal in the Jammu and Kashmir are the two place where many neolithic tools and the well settled village settlements were discovered. Koldihwa in the Belan valley is the place where all three ages tools and items were discovered of Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Iron age period. Community food preparation proofs were discovered at Budihal in Karnataka. Neolithic settlements also flourished at Piklihal, Paiyampalli, Garo Hills, Saraikhola, Chopani-Mando, etc.

If any topic is not covered related to the Neolithic age and you want to know then let me know in the comments sections. Also, all the precautions are taken while writing and even if some errors occurs the mention those in the comments. Hope you guys are liking my articles and stuff.

Also, check out my article on the Palaeolithic age at palaeolithic-age-in-india.

These notes can be helpful for UPSC Preparation, Board Exams, and other competitive exams.

The article on the Mesolithic age is at Mesolithic Culture in India.

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Mesolithic Age in India

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After the Palaeolithic age over in 10000 BC, the Mesolithic age started which lasted till 6000 BC, also known as the Late Stone age. Famous for its rock art paintings, this age created the maximum number rock paintings at various places in the world. Apart from rock paintings, Mesolithic age is also known for it's miniature tools, which were used as tools and could also be used for making different tools. Let's discuss more about Mesolithic Age;

Life of People -

Human life changed much after the Palaeolithic age as fire was discovered by them which led to more comfortable life of the people. The main occupation was hunting, fishing and food gathering. The people of this age are considered to the Holocene era. Also, people started domesticating animals later during this age, thus it can be said that milk and milk product became known to them. However, the skills of farming were not developed at that time but art in the form of rock paintings became very popular. These paintings are the major source of information of that period and the tools which were excavated from various places. The homes were same as during the Palaeolithic age i.e. caves and the rock shelters. The people used to move to new place after they exhausted the natural resources of that place.

Tools and Weapons -

The weapons and the tools had some drastic change from Palaeolithic age to the Mesolithic age as the size of the tools reduced very much as compared to the tools of the Palaeolithic age and the tools thus became easy to carry and handle. While the tools could be used as they were but if needed they could be also used for making other tools by them. These tools were used as composite tools for making arrows, sickles, spearhead, etc. after combining them to any sticks or bones. Also, the tools are known as microliths because they are the miniature version of the tools which were generally present before and after. However, the notable point is that the tools from both the ages were naturally occurring i.e. they weren't artificially crafted by people but were rather searched by them. These tools were mainly meant for hunting and chopping and other related stuff but some tools were also used for other use as digging the land and cutting the wood, etc.

Rock Painting -

Rock Art Paintings are the major source of information of this period which provides all the information related to the social life, habits, practices, etc. of that time. The rock painting are discovered at many places in India and other part of the world. These rock paintings were drawn by red and black colour. The paintings gives us the idea of life at that time. These paintings were mainly dominated by the animals which suggests that the whole age was animal centred. Many of the animals are seen in these painting but none of the paintings shows a portrait of snake or related reptile. The paintings shows that the men are dominating the animals which suggests that the animals were domesticated during this time and were used for many purpose. These paintings also shows the social condition of that era and shows that the religious practices were also popular and the labour was divided on the basis of gender. The highest number of these paintings are found at Bhimbetka Caves, which consists of over hundreds of such paintings each depicting the life during Mesolithic age. The rock art paintings were also discovered at Sohagighat in Kaimur Hills. The other places where such paintings were discovered are Ezhuthu Guha in Kerala, Sambalpur and Sundargarh in Orissa, and many other places. These paintings aren't just informative in nature but are great example of creativity and are always gives a tough competition for the paintings of the modern era even being so old.

Excavated Areas -

The largest and most documented Mesolithic site in India is Bagor which is located on the banks of Kothari river in Rajasthan where layered burial of Mesolithic men were found along with some large number of Mesolithic tools. The proof of animal domestication were first discovered here in bagor along with Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh. Mahadaha in Uttar Pradesh is the place where large number of bone artifacts were found which included arrowheads and other stuff. Many settlements were also discovered on the banks of river Krishna at Tinnevelly in Tamil Nadu. The belongings have been discovered across all the India uniformly unlike of Palaeolithic age. However, Bhimbetka remains the site with highest number of rock art paintings discovered across the India till no.

This is what we know about the Mesolithic age; if I forgot to cover some topics please let me know in the comment section.

Also, check out my article on the Palaeolithic age at palaeolithic-age-in-india.

These notes can be helpful for UPSC Preparation, Board Exams, and other competitive exams.

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Palaeolithic Age in India

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The Palaeolithic age also known as the old stone age was started roughly around 500000 BCE and ended in the 10000 BCE. The word 'Palaeo' means old and 'lith' means stone, thus, the word Palaeolithic means old stone age. This was the period in which the humans just started developing as such they are now-a-days, thus, all the basic human development occurred in this phase only. This age is further divided into three periods which are Lower Palaeolithic period, Middle Palaeolithic age, and Upper Palaeolithic age which are also discussed in details later in this article. There is much more to read and less time for reading, so let's start;

Life of the People -

The Negrito race people were the one lived during the Palaeolithic age, they used to live in the caves and the rock shelter. People used to live in the groups of a few and were depended on hunting for food as farming was not introduced till that time. In the later phase, however, the fire was discovered by the people which helped them in living in dark and also cooking the food. They people were almost had no knowledge of not only agriculture but also the things like houses, pottery, or use of any metal were not known by them. The only source of the information of this period is the fossils and the stone tools remains found at various places during excavation. People used a harsh life in the both the lower and middle Palaeolithic age and lived a cosy life inside the caves which were all dark and fed on the animals which they hunted, and generally there is no difference between both the ages but the tools used in both the ages were different and the sites they spread on. The Upper Palaeolithic age was the period when the fire was discovered and thus, much aspects of the life of the people changed dramatically. They started living in night outside there caves by using fire as the source of light and also started cooking food.

Sites of Palaeolithic Age -

It spread in all parts of India except the plains of Indus and Ganga river which suggests that the plains at that time lacked high density of the animals which were necessary for the survival of the people at that time as they only relied on animals for food and did not spread in that area because the animal density was might not good there. The lower Palaeolithic people spread across the Kashmir, Rajasthan and also in the Bhimbetka region and Belan Valley near Mirzapur. While the upper Palaeolithic population spread in the cave sites of Kurnool and Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi in Andhra Pradesh and the middle Palaeolithic people spread in the Narmada and Tungabhadra valley and the Potwar plateau. Thus, the point to be note here is that, the humans spread in India from South to North direction and not from North to South.

Discovery of Fire -

The fire was discovered accidentally in this period only. Earlier the man had seen the forest fire but did not know the reason behind it until one day someone accidentally rubbed two stones which produced the spark which lit the fire in the dry leaves and wood around it. And later after practicing it perfectly they started producing fire easily and used it for various purposes which eventually reduced there dependency on sun for light as now they can produce the light from the fire. Thus, in this way the discovery of fire helped the mankind a lot. The fire was not used only as the source of light but was also used for keeping them warm and also frightening the animals during night. Man, gradually, also learnt that the food tasted better when heated on the fire.

Tools Used -

The Palaeolithic people were depended on stone tools only for any purpose as no metal was discovered at that time. The tools were generally made of a hard rock called 'quartzite' and that's why the Palaeolithic people are also called ' Quartzite men ', specially in India. All the three ages of Palaeolithic period witnessed different types of stone tools. The Upper Palaeolithic period people used Parallel sided blades, burins and some bone tools which were used mainly for hunting and chopping of flesh; while flakes' tools, scrapers, borers, and points were used in the Middle Palaeolithic age; and the lower Palaeolithic age witnessed the use of very basic kind of stone hand axes, choppers and cleavers. The lower Palaeolithic age flourished from 500000 BC to 50000 BC while after that middle Palaeolithic age ended around 40000 BC, after that upper Palaeolithic age occurred till the start of Mesolithic age i.e. 10000 BC.

This is what occurred during the Palaeolithic age and later after the 10000 BCE, the Mesolithic age started which was much same as the Palaeolithic age in terms of living. Palaeolithic age flourished all over the world, however, it is considered that it came late in India from the rest of the world while the real facts are just assumptions on the basis of things discovered during the excavations and there is possibility of skipping of some place where a lot more could be found of the Palaeolithic age.

Also read about Pre-Historic India at Pre-Historic India.

Also check our article on relation of town planning of Harappan Culture with the modern day urbanisation at Modern world and Harappan Culture.

These articles are strictly for the UPSC CSE Mains Exams. Also it is useful for the students who are going to appear for the different state boards.

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Pre-Historic India

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Pre-History is the study of all the events occurring before writing was known to the humans and proto-history is the period when writing was not known but the period is mentioned in the contemporary civilization or any later literate culture. Generally, this period was started form the evolution of Human beings and lasted till 1000 BC, but it may vary from culture to culture. So, this article is about the Pre-historic period at Indian subcontinent like when, where and how it flourished.
Let's start;

Introduction -

As we know what does the word pre-history means; it is referred to the domain of study of all the events occurring before the invention of writing to the humans or basically the period in which the humans just started to socialise. So, by this definition all the cultures before Harappan Civilization are considered to be the part of the pre-historic period and the harappan civilization itself is the part of proto-history as the writing of the Harappan period have been found on various seals, inscriptions, etc. which is not deciphered yet but found its existence in the contemporary Mesopotamian civilizations' written records. Basically, the study of Pre-historic period includes the study of the tools and the dead remains of the people found at various places. The first such tool to be discovered in India was the Pallavaram handaxe of Palaeolithic period. The contribution of Robert Bruce Foote and Sir Mortimer Wheeler remains very unique and significant as both of them put many efforts to the study of the pre-historic culture in India and helped in providing proper knowledge of that period. The pre-historic period is also known as stone age as mainly the stones were used as tools for all the purpose from hunting to lightening up the fire. Thus, the period is divided on the basis of stone tools used by the people and is divided in three phases:

1. Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age) - 500000-10000 BC.

2. Mesolithic Age (Late Stone Age) - 10000-6000 BC.

3. Neolithic Age (New Stone Age) - 6000-1000 BC.

Human Development in Pre-Historic Era -

The development of Human Brain's creativity was started from this period only as all the major inventions and innovations took place in the pre-historic period like the invention of wheel and the discovery of fire. And after the discovery of fire, the innovation of cooking food took place, just like this the human brain kept on progressing in this period and led to the foundation of the earlier civilizations. It was this period of stones in which farming was first practiced by humans which led to the permanent settlement of humans at a particular place as the dependency on hunting for food declined gradually. Also, the humans started using the stones as different tools for various uses in this period only. Thus, we can say that this pre-historic period led to the foundations of the civilizations as all the major reforms which were necessary for the civilization to flourish took place in this period only. If all these discoveries and inventions did not occur at that time, it would not be possible for any civilization to happen.

Also read a article on Palaeolithic age at /palaeolithic-age-in-india.

Origin of Man in India -

The first homo sapiens in the Indian Subcontinent were discovered at Fa Hien in Sri Lanka which is considered to be 34000 years old. The modern human arrived in the Indian Subcontinent from Africa by crossing the entire Indian Ocean which was frozen during the ice age. Thus, the humans arrived in India from south, not from north as it is thought generally. Also, the oldest skull fossile found was Ramapithecus and was found in the Shivaliks. The major evolution took place at Africa only but in the later phase of evolution both Ramapithecus and Sivapithecus became extinct and thus how homo erectus later became homo sapiens in India. And later the Palaeolithic age was started by those homo sapiens.

Different Ages -

The pre-historic period is divided in three important time period or ages and those ages are Palaeolithic age; Mesolithic age; and Neolithic age. Here, the three words are derived from greek words which are 'palaeo' means old, 'meso' means middle, 'neo' means new, and 'lith' means stone. Thus, it is clear now that why these ages were named so, as Palaeolithic age means the old stone age, Mesolithic age means the middle stone age and the Neolithic age means the newest stone age. The Old Stone Age began in 500000 BC and ended up roughly around 10000 BC. The Mesolithic and Neolithic ages started in 10000 BC and 6000 BC respectively and ended up around 6000 BC and 1000 BC. This is how the whole Pre-historic India is divided in the time period and the development of the people. The Chalcolithic age is also considered to be in the Pre-historic period as the writing was not invented at that time, however, people started using metals for making tools instead of the stones.

These are just the brief details of the Pre-Historic India and there is lot more about all the ages in many other articles which are specifically wrote on those ages and have detailed description of all the ages in it. Check out all those articles also.

Also check our article on relation of town planning of Harappan Culture with the modern day urbanisation at Modern world and Harappan Culture.

These articles are strictly for the UPSC CSE Mains Exams. Also it is useful for the students who are going to appear for the different state boards.

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Cronology of Harappan Culture

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These dates are always hard to learn but history is just a story without these dates, so we will have to learn these dates. So here is the timeline of the Harappan Civilization:

7000 BC             :    Earliest agricultural settlements in Baluchistan.

4000 BC             :    Pre-Harappan settlements in Cholistan (Pakistan).

3000-2000 BC    :    Period of heavy rain and substantial flow of water into Indus and Sarasvati.

2500-1900 BC    :    Mature Harappan Culture.

2000 BC             :    Elam as a powerful State. The remains of a horse in Surkotada.

1900-1500 BC    :    Degenerate phase of Harappan culture in India.

1800 BC             :    Use of rice in Lothal.

1900-1200 BC    :    Post-urban Harappan Culture.

1700 BC             :    The Yamuna and Sutlej leave the Sarasvati.

1500-1200 BC    :    Successive groups of the Vedic people enter the Indian Subcontinent.

300 BC               :    Brahmi Script introduced.

Timeline of the Harappan Archaeology -

1853 - A. Cunningham's find of a Harappan Seal.

1921 - Daya Ram Sahani's excavation of Harappa.

1931 - Marshall excavation of Mohenjo-Daro.

1938 - Mackay excavated the same site.

1940 - Vats excavated Harappa.

1946 - Mortimer Wheeler excavated Harappa.

After 1947 - Harappan and associated sites excavated.

read my article on decline of the Harappan Civilization at this link.

These articles are mainly based on the preparation of UPSC CSE Mains and various other competitive exams. Also you can refer to these articles for increasing your knowledge as well as for preparing for various boards examinations.

Read the article on Amazing facts of Harappan Civilization at Facts of Harappan Culture

These articles can be used for the preparation of UPSC CSE, various board exams and other competitive exams.

Also check our notes on Religion of Harappan Culture at Sindhu Reliion

Also you can refer to other articles for more details about Indus Valley Culture

Want to know more about Harappan Civilization read at The First Cities

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Problems by Harappan Culture

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This tittle sounds some wired but it is true as Harappan Civilization had many problems within it even being one of the most oldest and smartest and most developed civilization. There were two basic problems associated with the Indus Valley Civilizations which aren't highlighted much yet they were really big issue for any civilization to be sorted out but the Harappans did continue with both of these problems and it resulted in the decline of the entire civilization. And both of the issues are discussed in details in this article which will make you think again that was Harappan Civilization as great as we thinks. Let's start :

Exploitation of Resources -

The harappan people exploited the natural resources in such a bad way that the area is not even able to recover all the loss of the resources and even now it is desert and barren land. People used to overly use the wood for various purpose which resulted in the large scale deforestation in the area and converted the whole region into the desert which is now known as Thar Desert and Rann of Kutch. The large scale deforestation also affected all the other ecological activities like rain and wildlife which resulted in drying up of many rivers like ghaghar and saraswati and also led to increase in the aridity. They also overused some metals and minerals which resulted in emptying up of many mineral mines and affected the development in present days. Also, they used to overuse the land for cropping which resulted in the extinction of natural particles and minerals from soil and converted it to the sand which could not grow anything now. The people were not aware of the sin they were doing and kept on exploiting the resources in the region which made the whole region inhabitable and even the harappan people were forced to migrate to a different place and it became one of the major factor in the decline of the entire civilization as after the destruction if the resources at such a level they were left with nothing later and thus they shifted to some new region. Ever wonder how development can led to problems? This is the answer, the harappan people were so busy in developing them that they forget to look after the resources they had and eventually left with nothing. Thus we understood what was the problem with the Harappan people, that they did not relied on sustainable development rather they were busy in development only even on the sake of all the resources they had. They people were busy in baking the bricks to make new houses from the wood but didn't look at the large scale cutting of trees around them. And thus, when the cities were developed completely and they looked around them they found no more resources to use thus they got the entirely developed cities but were left with no resource to live in those developed cities and thus migrated to some different place leading to the decline of the entire civilizations.
This way of unsustainable development was the biggest problem of the harappan people and even that might was the reason for the decline of their civilization.
This story even gives us the message that in our life we are so busy in creating money, fame, etc. that we forgot to live the moment and enjoy the life and when we achieve the success we are left with no time to enjoy and then we regret that if we had enjoyed our life more nicely just like what harappan people would have thought. This reminds us that in the race of being more developed we are punishing the nature which will teach a lesson later when we will be left with no time.
This what happened in front of my house, a few years ago our street was upgraded from kachha road to cemented pakka road in the name of development by the government. Everyone thinks it as good but let me tell you that what is bad in it, let me tell you how it is just waste of money and also harming the nature. Firstly, consider that the street have very very little traffic, so what used to happen is now the rain water can't find a way to go inside the land and thus the ground water level will fall and secondly the kachha road literally required no maintenance as every year the rain used to take some soil with it and levelled the road again but now the cemented road need a lot of maintenance every year which the government forgets to do so there are large pit holes on the road. Thus, in this simple way we are harming nature in the name of development. I strongly agree that the roads should be build of nice quality but just check that if there is the need of that road there. And in the same way we are heading towards the destruction of earth every year. So, let's be aware now that we need sustainable development or just want to migrate to some other place just like the harappan people.

Class System -

It's strange to tell but even 5000 years ago there existed one kind of class system and gave people superiority over other people and the same caste system which is happening today was also used to happen in that period. The division of every city into two parts; Citadel and lower part; which were different from each other proves that even in that time people used to believe in these kind of rituals when the human civilization just started and people had not ethnic division and no religion existed to teach people hate each other then why this kind of discrimination was there, why someone had the superiority over others, etc. even there is the difference in the burial of people which gives us the entire idea that how worst were those days in terms of the discriminations and also the difference in making of the toy models says the same story of one class dominating over other. This shows that humans were never freed from the idea of dominance and racism and this nature of human has been evolved so nicely that we can't come out of this trap which we had created by our small thinking. And after the evolution of 5000 years, it is understood that why daily people are killed in the name of religion and nations which does not exists as such before some time. And this war of superiority had came to such a point that the entire human culture is under threat. These development of atom bombs which are created for our own destruction are given preference over the hunger of a child. We humans had come to such a point that we had left we no humanity in us and I hate harappan people because they started this culture of caste system, racism, etc. which had left us with no humanity in our heart.

So, these are the two problems which were started by the Harappan Civilization which we are evolving to a new level with every generation. I hope that one day, these borders will fall and the religion will just be word. And I hope that we will achieve it one day, Yes, we can!

Hope if you can change it!

This article was not for preparation of any exams but rather it was written for the preparation of changing us from inside. Today, just take a brake for sometime and think that are we heading towards the right way, if not, what is the way in which humankind should move. If you find a right way just move in that direction, one day the entire human population will be following you.

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Excavation of Harappan Sites

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We often wonder what were the things found during the excavation of the Harappan Sites. What was the use of those things and how those things were helpful in learning about the Sindhu Civilization and also how advanced they were in use. There are many questions related to the discoveries of those items which need to be answered but I know that we don't get the answers easily and that even does not satisfy us. When I first read about the Harappa and Mohenjodaro a series of questions sparked inside my mind which weren't answered by anyone and thus it took me a really long time to find the answers of my questions and I want to share all the information related to the items found there at the Harappan sites. So, Let's start;

Seals -

The seals are the most interesting items excavated from the various Harappan sites and were found in large numbers. These seals were all different from each other and were made of steatite or faience. The primary use of these seals were to show the authority of ownership and all of them ad some engraved symbols and pictures of animals like rhino, tiger, bull, etc. Almost around 2000 seals were found at various locations during the excavation. The Harappan Seals were not only found at in the Indus Valley but many were also found the Mesopotamian towns which shows that the seals played an important role in the Trades. They were might used for stamping the objects and many historians thinks that they were also used as amulets.

Harappan Pottery -

Many pieces of pottery were also found during the excavation and in fact these pottery pieces were the first thing found related to the Harappan Civilization. These pottery pieces gives us the idea of the artisan skills of the harappan people as well as their skills. The pots were found from the size of the thumb to size of the container burials. The pots were basically red in colour and had black coloured decorations on them, and had the designs of trees and circles while they also had pictures depicting stories from Panchatantra and figures of men and dancing women.

Terracotta Models -

Toy models of clay which were baked to harden were also very popular during the Harappan time and are commonly known as terracotta models. There is a wide range of these models found during the excavation like the model of carts, ploughs, birds, dogs, men, women, etc. which were used as the toys or might be the objects of worship. There is the huge difference in the design of these terracotta models as some of them are very unsophisticatedly designed while some are well finished which suggests that they were used by two different classes of the society. Also, these models represents the interest of the society towards tools and animals as they were the two central ideas of the entire Indus Valley Civilization.

Bricks -

Bricks are the most important item found at the whole civilization as they had very unique ratio and were baked in the fire to give them extra strength which was not done in any other civilizations of that time and even later civilizations. The bricks had an identical ratio of1:2:4 in terms of the thickness:width:length across all the sites of the harappan culture. Also the size of the bricks were fixed for the particular use like for making houses the average size of the brick was 7*14*28 cm cube while for making city walls the brick of 10*20*40 cm cube was used. This idea of burnt definite size bricks was not there in any of the contemporary civilization which makes the harappan culture much ahead of the time and shows the innovative minds of the harappan people.

Statues -

The harappan people were not only made very skilled pottery and seals but also created some really awesome metal and stone statues with great precision and accuracy. The metal portrait of the women dancer is among the very interesting item to be discovered during the excavation of the harappan sites. The specimen of the woman was naked but it wore one necklace. Many statues made up of the stone were also found out of which the statue of the priest wearing some jewellery and a shawl is very popular statue. These statues provide the great information about the lifestyle of the people and also describe that there was some kind of difference between the two societies of the culture.

Measuring Units -

Harapans not only had special kind of instruments for measurement but also had a definite measuring system. . Harappan Culture showed a highly accurate and standardised system of weights and measures. A binary system in lower denominations of 1,2,8,16,32and 64 had been followed in weights with decimals like 160, 320, 640, 1600, 3200, and so on. For measuring lengths foot and a cubit were standardised unites. People also created square weighing units with limestone and steatite which were used as standard measuring units for trading, also a measuring shell scale was discovered at Mohenjodaro and an angle measuring shell scale was discovered at Lothal which was probably used for the navigation of ships.

These were some interesting items excavated during the Harappan Sites and their details. And hope you guys liked it and let me know your views about my articles in the comment section. Also, do read my article on decline of the Harappan Civilization at this link.

These articles are mainly based on the preparation of UPSC CSE Mains and various other competitive exams. Also you can refer to these articles for increasing your knowledge as well as for preparing for various boards examinations.

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Decline of Harappan Culture

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The very well laid out cities with proper arrangements for almost everything including sanitation, backup food, markets, etc. which were literally thousand years ahead of time but still discontinued suddenly . These are the stories of the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization and they are many, from being flood the reason to the invasion of the Aryans, it has many forms. There are as many tales of the decline of the Sindhu Valley Civilization as many mouths, some says it was because of the epidemic, while some says that it was because of the earthquakes, and many even say that it was because of drying of ghaghar river. In this article I will briefly describe how all of the reasons would have ended the Indus Valley Civilization.
Read about the relation of Indus Valley Civilization and the Vedic Period at Connection of Harappan Culture and Vedas.
Below is the list of reasons which may were the reason for the decline of the harappan culture:

Invasion of Aryans -

It is believed that the Aryans invaded the Harappan Cities during the 1900 BC by many historians like Wheeler and Gordon. It is possible that the Aryans invaded the Harappan cities from the north and killed every person of the cities in order to capture there land as well as looting all there things. This mass killing by the Aryan invaders resulted as the end of the Harappan Civilization and led the foundation of the Aryan rule in the Indian Subcontinent. This idea is derived from the invasion of various Mugal and Mangol rulers' invasion during the Medieval period who killed millions of people but this theory does not hold strong as none of the invasion resulted in the ending of any culture or civilization.

Flood in Indus -

We all know that the floods in Indus were very common before the dams were build by the Indian Government and this also used to happen back during the Haappan time which might have killed many people. These frequent floods might have forced people to migrate on large scale which resulted in the fast decline of the Sindhu Civilization. Also the people may have shifted to the more safer place and moved towards the southern or central India. This reason sounds the most convincing and is supported by historians like S.R.Rao and Macay.

Change in the course of river -

There are scientific proofs that the course of rivers like Indus, Ravi, and many other rivers had changed over the period of time frequently which is also considered as the reason for the end of the Harappan Civilization. This change in the course of rivers had led the people to many problems thatswhy the people may have migrated from there and moved to some other part where they had more safer environment in terms of water and food availability. This theory of the decline of the Harappan Culture was supported by M.S.Vatsa, H.T.Lambrick, and Dales. However, this reason is not considered as the sole reason for the decline rather it is considered as one of the many factor which may ended the Harappan Civilization.

Low Rainfall and Drying of Ghaghar -

The region in which the Indus Valley Civilization flourished receives a very little amount of rainfall present days which has been continuing since a long period of time which scientists says started during the late harappan phase. This shortage in the rainfall resulted in the drying of many rivers like sarawati and ghaghar which led to the water shortage to the Harappan people thus they might have migrated to some other place which had secured water resources. This shortage of rainfall also resulted in the rise of aridity in the region which adversely affected the people of the Sindhu Civilization and thus resulted in the decline of the entire Indus Valley Civilization.

Ecological Disturbances -

Harappan people greatly exploited the natural resources of the region be it land, minerals, trees, water, etc. This thing resulted in the conversion of the whole region into the barren land which is now known as Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch. Harappan people cut trees in large numbers and used them as timber and other use. This cutting of trees in large number resulted in the change in environmental conditions which converted the whole land into the desert and people were left with no other option then leaving that place.

Natural Calamities -

The great historian K.A.R.Kennedy says that the reason behind the decline of Harappan Civilization was some kind of natural calamity which killed huge mass of people of the Sindhu Culture and forced the remaining to move to a newer place for continuing their life. This could have occurred by the series of earthquakes or any kind of plague. Also, this is notable that the Harappan region is porn to the earthquakes as it lies on the edge of the two tectonic plates which is the main reason to ths problem. And just because of some series of earthquake people might have migrated to some other place for living which resulted in the decline of the Sindhu Culture suddenly.

Conclusion -

It is clear to us now that how any of the above reason be responsible for the decline of the Harappan Culture but let us now understand what might have occurred in real. All the historians give different reasons for this but many also thinks that this decline had not been caused by any single reason. This means that considering that any one of the reason responsible for the decline will not be the right assumption as there were more than one reason for the decline of the Civilization. And the best combination of reason is considered as the flood affected Harappans invaded by the Aryans which also sounds more particle as there are evidences that some of the cities were destroyed by the force which might was done by the Aryans and some of the Sindhu cities are also destroyed by the floods. So, thinking that these two reasons were responsible for the decline of the Harappan Cities is most particle and also have been proved by the facts.

Hope you would have liked the article, Check out our article on the economic conditions of the Harappan Culture at Economy of Harappan Civilization.

These articles are mainly based on the preparation of UPSC CSE Mains and various other competitive exams. Also you can refer to these articles for increasing your knowledge as well as for preparing for various boards examinations.

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Connection of Harappan Culture and Vedas

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People often wonder that was there any relation between Vedic age and the Harappan Culture and often get confused in the relativity of both the cultures. Also, we generally misunderstood that the Vedas had direct connection with the Indus Valley Culture but it is not so. The Vedas were written much after the decline of the Harappan Culture and The Harappan Culture was not Vedic as well as so called Hindu Civilization. It was much later that the Vedas, Puranas, Upnishads, and other literatures were written and all this started after 1500 BC which was far after the decline of Harappan Civilization which is considered to be ended in 1900 BC. There are many facts which suggests that there is no relation between the Harappan Culture and the Vedic Age which will be discussed in details in this article. So let's have look on all the facts that suggests that there is no relation between Vedic age and Harappan Culture:
Also do check our article on the economy of Indus Valley Civilization at Harappan Economy.

Details Through Dates -

We all know that the Harappan Culture Ended in the 1900 BC and all the cities were left over by the people and there is no sign of existence of the Harappan Culture after the 1900 BC. On the other hand, the Vedic age is considered to be started in the 1500 BC which shows that there was a gap of almost 400 years between both the Cultures. This analysis of time period of both Harappan Culture and the Vedic Age provide an evidence that there is no relation of both the cultures. After the 1900 BC, there was a huge gap of 400 years after which the Vedic age started flourishing and thus the time of both the culture does not overlaps each other that there was no link to prove that both the culture had any relations.

Relation in Data -

Both the Culture provided us a raw data through the items we discovered at all the excavation sites. And the data provide a very interesting fact that the people from both the culture did not had common livings as well as the knowledge. As the Harappan people knew about rhino, elephants, tigers, etc.; whole Vedic Culture on the other hand knew only about horses and chariots. Also, the Early Vedic people only used to eat barley whereas the Indus people also knew about wheat, peas and even rice during the later phase of the civilization. These differences in the knowledge of things suggests that both Harappan and the Vedic culture were not related to each other. If both the ages had so many disparities with each other how come both be connected or considered to be the part of the other age as no direct relation is recognised yet.

Script and Language -

As we know that the script used by the Harappan people to write was pictographic and is not deciphered yet thus the major information of the Harappan culture are not known to us. While we have all the major information of the Vedic Age which provides us the fact that if both the civilizations had some kind of relation then why languages of both the cultures are so different and no information of the other culture had been provided in the literary sources of one culture. Also, there is no information of the town planning of the harappan culture in the Vedas while all the Vedic lifestyle had been described in them clearly. This fact is enough to prove that both Harappan and Vedic culture had no connections with each other.

Area Covered -

The Area covered by the Harappan Culture was roughly about 1,299,600 sq. Km which spread across the north-western part of the Indian Peninsula which includes present day Gujrat, Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh of India and Sindh, Punjab, and Baluchistan of present day Pakistan. While the Vedic Culture spread across the whole India which also included central India, southern India, Hindukush, and many parts of Afghanistan. This clearly shows that the Vedic culture spread across the larger area as compared to the Harappan Culture which gives us the idea that there was no link in both the cultures as both spread across the entire different lands. Also there is no other Vedic era city or town discovered in the Harappan region and also there is no sign of continuation of the Harappan Culture during the Vedic age.

These above discussed facts clearly suggests that there was no relation between the Harappan Culture and the Vedic Age. Also this is more than enough to prove that both the cultures were not related to each other with any kind of link be it people, place, language, or any other form of knowledge and both the cultures were independent to each other.

These articles are based on the preparations of UPSC CSE Mains and various other competitive exams including various board examinations.

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Economy of Harappan Civilization

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How was the economy then?

The development of any country and a civilization depends on how is the economy of that nation or civilization. So, to check how developed the Indus Valley Civilization was, we have to look at the economy of the Indus culture. The economy of the Indus Civilization was really stable and stronger than the contemporary civilizations and also by many present day countries. How was the economic condition of the harappan time, was it stronger then the contemporary civilizations, andmany more question will be answered in this article. Also what was the process of trade in the indus culture along with a short study of the taxations of that period will be covered in this article.

If you want to read about the agricultural system of the Sindhu time, you can refer to this article at Agriculture in harappan culture.

So, let's have a look on the economy of Sindhu Civilization;

Status of Trade -

Trade is the key to development of any civilization and so it was for the Indus Valley Civilization. The Sindhu people had well developed trade relations with all the contemporary civilizations like that of Mesopotamian, Persian, and Egyptian Civilization. Even the inter city trade was also well flourished. The Mesopotamians used to refer Harappan Civilization as Meluhha. Trade was conducted by the means of Barter as no metallic or any other kind of money was present but the seals played some really important role in the trade. Seals were might used by every merchant to show its uniqueness and claim its ownership on any product. Also the harappan culture was the major exporter of Cotton clothes, jewellery, beads, and other tools to all the contemporary civilizations and used to import some raw materials like metals, and many other things. Also, Carts were used for internal trade while for the inter-civilizational trade ships were mainly used.

Importance of Seals -

Seals were the items which were discovered in large number form all the sites of the harappan culture during excavation. And they even had some very important role in the economy of the Sindhu Culture as they might be used for marking the ownership of the property or they may also be used as amulets. Who had the authority to issue these seals are not known yet but it might was done the central authority as none of the seals has same signs. The seals were even used by the authority to trace the amount of trade done by any trader and thus it would make it easier to maintain the records as well as generate the taxes. Also some of the Harappan seals were also found at the Mesopotamian cities like Susa and Ur while some Mesopotamian seals were also found at Mohenjodaro which advocates the fact that the inter civilizational trade also existed between the two civilizations.

Tax Generation -

Like any strong economy, Harappan Civilization also extracted huge revenue in the form of taxes but it was majorly collected in the form of food grains as the large granaries were built for this purpose of holding the huge amount of food grains collected in the form of taxes. There was no direct tax on agriculture as it was in the medieval India but the taxes and duties were mainly imposed during the time of sales of the product and all the agricultural products were also exchanged with food grains and other useful items. The revenue collected was might given in the form of wages to the workers under the authority and to be saved for the bad times. Also the major exporting crops were sold at some important trading cities with the exchange of food grains and paying a part of that food grains earned as the tax fixed by the authority. The tax rates are considered to be low as there was huge production and a small percent would create huge amount of revenue for the authority.

Standardisation of Unites -

The Standard unites of measurement is a must for prospering trade and it was also done in case of the Sindhu Civilization Trade. Harappan Culture showed a highly accurate and standardised system of weights and measures. A binary system in lower denominations of 1,2,8,16,32and 64 had been followed in weights with decimals like 160, 320, 640, 1600, 3200, and so on. For measuring lengths foot and a cubit were standardised unites. People also created square weighing units with limestone and steatite which were used as standard measuring units for trading, also a measuring shell scale was discovered at Mohenjodaro and an angle measuring shell scale was discovered at Lothal which was probably used for the navigation of ships.

These all features suggests how strong was the economy of the Harappan Culture and how developed was that civilization then even in that period. There is a statement in economics that, "If a country is developing then it's tax rates starts getting lower and the revenue starts increasing while if a country is moving towards downfall then it's tax rates starts increasing and the revenue still starts decreasing", and this was what happened with the Indus Valley Culture the country was developing and thus the tax rates were decreasing and the revenues were kept on increasing but now-a-days just opposite to this is happening in many countries like Nigeria, Pakistan, etc. where the tax rates are kept on increasing and the revenue kept on decreasing.

Hope you had liked the article.

Do read my article on the religion of the Harappan People at Harappan Religion.

These articles are mainly based on the preparation of UPSC CSE Mains and various other competitive exams. Also you can refer to these articles for increasing your knowledge as well as for preparing for various boards examinations.

Read all about the Harappan Culture at the first cities.

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Agriculture in Harappan Civilization

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What was the status of agriculture in Sindhu Civilization?

As we know that human started cultivating crops with the starting of Neolithic Age and till Harappan period they might have reached some more heights in this field. So, this article is basically about the status and condition of the food production in the Indus Valley Culture. We people often wonder how all this process started first and how it evolved later on, so Harappan period was the time in which the major changes happened in this field. What were the crops grown by them, how do the cultivated it, what was the time to harvest it, and many other questions like this will be answered in this article. Also do check our article on Religion of Harappan Culture.

So lets have a look on the agricultural status of the Indus Valley Civilization:

Crops Grown -

Mainly wheat and barley was grown in all parts of the Sindhu Civilization while some other food and cash crops were also grown by the people. Horse gram, peas, melon, watermelon, sesame, dates, millets, grapes, henna(also known as Mehandi), garlic, and mustard were some other crops grown in that period. Cotton was first produced by the harappan people in the world and they were the sole exporter of cotton cloths to he contemporary civilizations. While they not only grew cotton first but also first in spinning thread from it and afterwards weaving it to make fresh fine cloth. In Lothal, people also started cultivating rice in the post harappan period. Even they people also ate molluscs as food in the costal area of Gujrat.

Crop Pattern -

The cropping pattern was far different then from today as the climate conditions had much changed in this phase of 5000 years, thus, the cropping pattern had also changed with the change in climate cycle. The major change had come in the number of crops per year in this time. As by some revolutionary changes in the field of technology, we can now grow and harvest 3 crops in a year but long time ago, in indus culture farmers used to grow only a single crop in a year. It was basically because of the floods which occurred then which resulted in no agricultural activities from May to October. Thus, the people sowed seeds in November when the flood water retreated and harvested the crops in April just before the advent of the next year floods.

Technology Used -

The technology was not as developed as it is in the present time but they people were really innovative in nature as they discovered new techniques of growing crops which were really effective. They not only discovered wooden ploughs but also came with the idea of ploughing fields with the help of some big animals like camels and horses. A clay model of plough was excavated at Banawali. Also, some ploughed fields were also discovered at Kalibangan during its excavation. The technique of using animals for ploughing fiels are still practiced in many parts of the world but it is gradually decreasing as modern vehicles are replacing it. The use of animal cart was very popular and also animals were also used for pulling out water from wells for irrigation purpose. The discovery of small pieces of cotton clothes suggest that the harappan people also knew how to weave and that might have been done by some complex looms and spinners. Thus, the one cannot deny the fact that the harappan people were also very advanced in the field of technology.

Domestication of Animals -

The domestication of different animals was very much popular in the Indus Valley Culture. There is a long list of animals which were domesticated in the Indus Culture. The cattle like camels, goats, oxen, buffalos, humped bulls, sheep, pigs, and asses were domesticated on large scale. Also, pets like cats and dogs were also domesticated by the people of Sindhu civilization. The relationship of dog and humans was the same as it is today. Even horses were not regularly used but in the later phase of the civilization, they were also common. The existence of Unicorn has no proofs but it is found on many seals of the period. Animals and birds like monkeys, pigeons, wild fowl, peacock, ducks, rabbits, and tigers were also known to the people at that time. The Sindhu people were also acquainted with elephants and rhinoceros. Dog might was very much loved as it is todays thus dogs remains were also find at many burials of humans. Animals were also represented on almost all the seals excavated of that period which shows the love of Sindhu people for animals and nature.

Agricultural Taxes -

As per the major historian, no direct taxes were imposed on the agriculture, however, many indirect taxes were to be given in order to obtain profit from the production. If a farmer used to grow crops for his sole use no taxes were imposed on him, however, several duties and taxes were imposed on selling the food grains. Thus, it is clear that agriculture was free from taxes as long as it was not done on commercial scale. All the sales taxes were taken in the form of that particular product which was brought for sale in the market as no money or coins were introduced till that time and thus whole system was a kind of barter system. And the collected food grains were stored in large granaries built in all the major cities of the culture. The seals played important role in trade as well as in taxcation process. The Tax Rates were very low which shows that civilization was really well developed in economical terms as it is said in economics that, "If a country is developing then it's tax rates starts getting lower and the revenue starts increasing while if a country is moving towards downfall then it's tax rates starts increasing and the revenue still starts decreasing". Also how the land was divided among the people is not known till now.

This is all we know about the agriculture of Indus Valley Civilization. Yet many more facts are not discovered yet. Also, the contemporary civilizations' record also suggest that the Harappan Culture was much ahead of them in terms of agriculture.

Read about what more was better in the harappan culture than the contemporary civilizations at Contemporary civilizations and the Harappan Culture.

These articles are mainly based on the preparation of UPSC CSE Mains and various other competitive exams. Students of various boards can also refer to these articles for long answer type questions.

Also check out this article on the Harappan Culture and It's role in the modern urbanisation at Harappan Culture and the Modern Urbanisation.

Religion of Harappan people can be studied at this article.

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Religion of Harappan People

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Indus Religion

Many times we wonder which religion do the old civilizational people followed and how they practiced it. So in this article I would try to put some light on the religion that Harappan people practiced and how they were in terms of ethnicity and was caste system had it's root in the culture. Did the vedas emerged from there or later. Were they had some permanent ruling family or the king was elected by the people. There are many questions which need to be answered and many facts that need to be disclosed. So in this article we will read all about the religion of the Harappans.

Secularism -

Harappan civilization was one of the most secular civilization in that contemporary period.
All were given equal rights, however ruling class may had some more rights. The secularism
of Indus culture was so that there exist no structure like temple. Also the well flourished trade
between Sindhu people and the people from different civilizations suggest that the people
practiced the idea of universal acceptance and also the people were very tolerant in terms of
religion and spiritual practices.

Religious Structure -

Many gigantic structure were discovered at all the Sindhu Culture sites but a few were
recognised as religious. This may be mainly because the civilization was development
focused and thus the structures were generally constructed for the development of people.
Great Bath at Mohenjodaro was probably used for religious bath (ceremonial bath). Also,
the priest college was for the teaching of religious books and were also be used by priest
and other religious people for staying. None other buildings were used for religious purpose.
In Lothal and Kalibangan some fire altars were discovered which may be used as the site of
religious sacrifice of animals and may be something more.

Gods and Demigods -

Harappan people were not much religious but they used to worship many thing as in the
spiritual way. Of course, there were no goods and demigods being worshipped but they
people used to worship many other thing. Sindhu people generally worshipped -;Mother
Goddess; Pashupati Mahadeva; Lingam; Trees like Pipal; Birds like Dove and Pigeon;
and one-horned unicorn. Sindhu people were highly obliged to mother goddess probably
Earth. Also, the seals depicting Pashupati Mahadeva suggest that they also worshipped
Mahadeva. The only suspicious thing found on the seals is one-horned Unicorn which
some historians say that had great importance for the Sindhu people but a few also suggest
that it may be the one-horned rhinoceros.

Religious Practices -

Although not much religious practices were performed by the Indus Culture people but they
do practice a few which had been proved in the discoveries of the related places to it. The
most important religious practice is considered the religious bath at the Great Bath found
Mohenjodaro. This bath may had the same importance as it for hindu's now-a-days to take
bath in Ganga. Thus it is considered to be the most important practices among all other.
Also the religious sacrifice was practiced by the Sindhu people as Fire Altars had been
discovered at Lothal and Klaibangan. These sacrifices were might done to please mother
goddess in return of good rain and crops but the real reason is not discovered yet by the
historians. The discovery of three method of burial is significant to prove that class based
differences were there in the Harappan Culture as some people were completely buried while
some were fractionally and many had cremation followed by burial of the remains. Also some
were buried with jewellery, ornaments, food, pottery, while some were buried with nothing.

Evolution of Religion -

Religion was later evolved from that state to the present somewhat in the Vedic period where Vedas, Puranas, and various granths were written after the Aryan Invasion. Thus, the major form of the religion just changed after the post harappan period. It might be reason that we don't much about the religious practices of the harappan people as all the practices had been extinct just in the next period i.e. in the Vedic period.

This is all we know about the religion of the Harappan Culture religion. Much more is awaited as the harappan script is not deciphered yet.

Also check our article on relation of town planning of Harappan Culture with the modern day urbanisation at Modern world and Harappan Culture

These articles are strictly for the UPSC CSE Mains Exams. Also it is useful for the students who are going to appear for the different state boards.

Check out our article on comparison of Harappan Civilization with other contemporary civilization at Harappan Culture and the contemporary Civilization

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Evolution of Paintings -

Palace of Settlements -

Lifestyle -

Agriculture -

Technology -

Area Influenced -

These notes can be helpful for UPSC Preparation, Board Exams, and other competitive exams.

Beginning of Food Production -

Tools and Technology -

Invention of Pottery -

Village Settlements -

Area Covered -

These notes can be helpful for UPSC Preparation, Board Exams, and other competitive exams.

Life of People -

Tools and Weapons -

Rock Painting -

Excavated Areas -

These notes can be helpful for UPSC Preparation, Board Exams, and other competitive exams.

Life of the People -

Sites of Palaeolithic Age -

Discovery of Fire -

Tools Used -

These articles are strictly for the UPSC CSE Mains Exams. Also it is useful for the students who are going to appear for the different state boards.

Introduction -

Human Development in Pre-Historic Era -

Origin of Man in India -

Different Ages -

These articles are strictly for the UPSC CSE Mains Exams. Also it is useful for the students who are going to appear for the different state boards.

Timeline of the Harappan Archaeology -

These articles are mainly based on the preparation of UPSC CSE Mains and various other competitive exams. Also you can refer to these articles for increasing your knowledge as well as for preparing for various boards examinations.

These articles can be used for the preparation of UPSC CSE, various board exams and other competitive exams.

Also you can refer to other articles for more details about Indus Valley Culture

Exploitation of Resources -

Class System -

Seals -

Harappan Pottery -

Terracotta Models -

Bricks -

Statues -

Measuring Units -

These articles are mainly based on the preparation of UPSC CSE Mains and various other competitive exams. Also you can refer to these articles for increasing your knowledge as well as for preparing for various boards examinations.

Invasion of Aryans -

Flood in Indus -

Change in the course of river -

Low Rainfall and Drying of Ghaghar -

Ecological Disturbances -

Natural Calamities -

Conclusion -

These articles are mainly based on the preparation of UPSC CSE Mains and various other competitive exams. Also you can refer to these articles for increasing your knowledge as well as for preparing for various boards examinations.

Details Through Dates -

Relation in Data -

Script and Language -

Area Covered -

These articles are based on the preparations of UPSC CSE Mains and various other competitive exams including various board examinations.

How was the economy then?

Status of Trade -

Importance of Seals -

Tax Generation -

Standardisation of Unites -

These articles are mainly based on the preparation of UPSC CSE Mains and various other competitive exams. Also you can refer to these articles for increasing your knowledge as well as for preparing for various boards examinations.

What was the status of agriculture in Sindhu Civilization?

Crops Grown -

Crop Pattern -

Technology Used -

Domestication of Animals -

Agricultural Taxes -

These articles are mainly based on the preparation of UPSC CSE Mains and various other competitive exams. Students of various boards can also refer to these articles for long answer type questions.

Indus Religion

Secularism -

Religious Structure -

Gods and Demigods -

Religious Practices -

Evolution of Religion -

These articles are strictly for the UPSC CSE Mains Exams. Also it is useful for the students who are going to appear for the different state boards.

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